ABSTRACT
-
Objective
College students exhibit high beverage consumption and various diet-related problems. Therefore, this study investigated gender-specific beverage consumption patterns and evaluated beverage-related behaviors and beverage-derived nutrient intake among college students.
-
Methods
This study included 366 college students (171 men and 195 women) from Chungnam, South Korea. Beverage categories included carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages, caffeinated beverages, energy drinks, alcoholic beverages, and milk and liquid yogurt products. Beverage preference, consumption frequency, beverage-related dietary behaviors, and dietary intake were assessed using 3-day 24-hour dietary recalls to evaluate beverage-derived nutrient intake.
-
Results
The mean total beverage intake was 433.9 g/day. Carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages accounted for the highest intake (144.9 g/day), followed by caffeinated beverages (125.6 g/day), alcoholic beverages (124.3 g/day), and milk and liquid yogurt products (39.2 g/day). Beverages contributed 10.1% of total energy intake and 35.5% of total sugar intake. Carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages were the largest contributors to carbohydrate and sugar intake, whereas alcoholic beverages contributed the most energy. Milk and liquid yogurt products were the largest contributors to beverage-derived fat and protein intake. Male students had significantly higher intakes of carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages, alcoholic beverages, total beverages, and beverage-derived energy and sugar than female students.
-
Conclusion
These findings highlight the need for nutrition education to promote healthier beverage choices among college students and support the development of gender-specific beverage-related interventions.
-
Keywords: Beverages; Feeding behaviors; Nutrient intake; University students
INTRODUCTION
In South Korea, rising incomes and changing lifestyles have increased beverage demand and supply in the food industry. National health statistics show that daily beverage intake among adults aged ≥19 years increased significantly from 210.9 g in 2015 to 316.5 g in 2024. This represents an increase of over 100 g over 9 years, reflecting a consistent upward trend [
1].
Beverage intake varied significantly by age, with adults aged 19 to 29 years consuming 426.3 g/day of beverages and milk, surpassing all other age groups [
2]. College students in this demographic showed even higher consumption (442.9 mL/day) than the general 19 to 29 age group (426.3 mL/day) [
3]. Studies show that college students consume the highest amounts of carbonated, sweetened, caffeinated, and alcoholic beverages [
3,
4]. In contrast, milk and liquid yogurt products show lower intake levels than other beverage categories [
3,
5]. To date, most research has examined individual high-consumption categories, such as sweetened, caffeinated, and alcoholic drinks, separately [
6,
7]. Consequently, comprehensive studies examining overall beverage consumption patterns, related dietary behaviors, nutrient contributions, and gender differences remain limited.
University students, previously dependent on school meals or parental support, must suddenly manage their own diets upon entering university [
8]. The autonomy of university life, including social gatherings, dormitory living, or off-campus housing, has been associated with dietary issues such as skipping meals, frequent eating out, irregular eating habits, and excessive alcohol consumption [
9,
10]. Beverage consumption among university students is negatively associated with solid food intake, raising concerns about potential nutritional and dietary imbalances [
11-
14]. Sugar-sweetened carbonated beverages, which are high in sugar, significantly contribute to energy intake. Liquid foods with empty calories lack essential nutrients, provide little satiety, and empty rapidly from the stomach, often increasing subsequent energy intake and potential nutritional risk [
15]. Similarly, caffeinated beverages are often consumed with foods high in simple sugars, such as cakes, cookies, and bread, further increasing caloric intake [
16]. Excessive alcohol consumption also contributes to nutritional imbalances by reducing food intake and impairing nutrient absorption [
17].
Beverage choices and related dietary behaviors differ by gender, with male students more likely to consume excessive energy intake from sugary drinks or alcohol consumption. In contrast, female students may show different beverage-related dietary behaviors associated with caffeine intake, dessert consumption, or dieting practices [
18]. Therefore, examining gender-specific beverage consumption patterns and nutrient intake among college students is essential for developing targeted nutrition education guidelines.
In this study, beverages were categorized as carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages, caffeinated beverages, alcoholic beverages, and milk and liquid yogurt. We examined gender differences in beverage consumption patterns among college students and compared dietary behaviors and nutrient intake across beverage consumption groups. This study aimed to provide foundational evidence to inform the development of tailored nutritional interventions and dietary education strategies based on gender-specific characteristics.
METHODS
Ethics statement
This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Kongju National University (No. KNU_IRB_2022_103). All participants received a detailed explanation of the study procedures before participation and provided written informed consent. The study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki.
Participants
This study was conducted among college students residing in the Chungnam region who understood the study purpose and procedures and voluntarily agreed to participate. To ensure an accurate assessment of dietary intake, participants were eligible if they had no history of memory-related disorders, self-reported eating disorders (such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa), dietary restrictions, or were not taking medications affecting appetite. Of the 395 participants who initially consented, data from 366 participants (171 men and 195 women) were included in the final analysis, with 29 participants excluded due to incomplete survey responses (response rate, 92.7%).
Study procedure
A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect data on participants’ general characteristics and beverage consumption patterns. It was developed based on previous studies and finalized after a pilot survey involving 10 participants and subsequent revisions [
7,
19]. The questionnaire on general characteristics included age, housing type, allowance, exercise frequency, and smoking status and frequency. The beverage consumption section addressed beverage preferences, consumption frequency, and beverage-purchasing behaviors.
Beverages were categorized into four groups: carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages (carbonated beverages and other sugar-sweetened beverages), caffeinated beverages (coffee, energy drinks, and tea), alcoholic beverages, and milk and liquid yogurt. Preference was assessed using a 5-point Likert scale: “strongly dislike” (1), “dislike” (2), “neutral” (3), “like” (4), and “strongly like” (5), with higher scores indicating greater preference. Consumption frequency was assessed as the number of times a beverage was consumed per week. The response categories were converted into weekly frequencies as follows: “rarely” was scored as 0, “once a month” as 0.25, “2–3 times a month” as 0.625, “once a week” as 1, “2–4 times a week” as 3, “5–6 times a week” as 5.5, “daily” as 7, and “2–3 times a day” as 17.5, and used to estimate weekly consumption frequency.
Beverage-purchasing behavior and beverage-related health knowledge were assessed by examining whether participants considered nutrition labels when selecting beverages, which label components they reviewed most closely, reasons for not checking nutrition labels, occasions of frequent beverage consumption, locations where beverages were purchased, factors influencing beverage selection, and average monthly expenditure on beverages.
Dietary intake was assessed over 3 days using the 24-hour dietary recall method. On the first day, dietary intake data were collected through an interviewer-administered recall. After training, participants were instructed to independently complete dietary records for two additional days, including weekdays and weekends, to capture their usual dietary intake patterns. The completed records were subsequently collected and reviewed. The survey included all foods and beverages consumed in a single day, along with information on the types and amounts of ingredients used in each dish, whether the recorded intake reflected usual dietary patterns, and water consumption.
Dietary data were converted from estimated food volumes to actual weights and analyzed using the nutritional analysis program CAN-Pro 5.0 (The Korean Nutrition Society) to estimate daily intake by food group as well as total energy and nutrient intake. To assess sugar intake, the US Department of Agriculture’s sugar database [
20] and the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety’s Food Composition Database [
21] were used. For caffeine and alcohol intake, a database was developed using the Food Composition Database [
21], supplemented with data from manufacturer websites and commercial product beverage manufacturer information, and used for intake analysis. Alcohol intake was calculated by converting alcohol by volume to grams using the formula specified in the Guidelines for Voluntary Nutrition Labeling of Alcoholic Beverages [
22].
All data were analyzed using SAS ver. 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc.) to calculate means, standard deviations, frequencies, and percentages. Differences by gender were evaluated using Student t-test for continuous variables and the chi-square test for categorical variables. Statistical significance was defined as P<0.05.
RESULTS
General characteristics
Among the 366 participants, 171 were men, and 195 were women. The mean age was 21.7 years, without a significant difference between gender (
Table 1).There were no significant gender differences in grade level, living arrangements, or allowance. Regarding exercise frequency, the most common categories among men were 1 to 2 times per week (38.6%) and 3 to 4 times per week (23.4%). Conversely, in women, the most common responses were “almost never” (58.0%) and 1 to 2 times per week (32.3%), indicating a significant gender difference (P<0.001). Regarding smoking status, 60 men (35.1%) and 22 women (11.3%) were smokers, showing a significant gender difference (P<0.001). Smoking frequency, the most prevalent category among men was ≥10 cigarettes per day (56.7%), but 1 to 4 cigarettes per day (54.6%) in women, also showing a significant gender difference (P<0.001).
Among all participants, 136 (37.2%) reported checking nutrition facts labels when purchasing beverages, without a significant gender difference (
Table 2). For label components, both gender prioritized calories, sugars, and protein; however, women were more likely than men for calories (62.8% vs. 43.1%), indicating a significant gender difference (P<0.05). The most common reasons for not checking nutrition labels were “no perceived need” (51.3%) and “out of habit” (40.9%), with no significant gender differences. Regarding beverage consumption occasions, men most commonly reported drinking beverages when thirsty (42.1%), after meals (21.1%), during snacks (11.1%), frequently (11.1%), and after exercise (8.2%). Conversely, women most consumed beverages during snacks (34.4%), when thirsty (24.1%), after meals (23.6%), frequently (9.2%), and during meals (8.7%), showing a significant gender difference (P<0.001). The most common place to purchase beverages (multiple responses allowed) was convenience stores, reported by 312 participants (85.3%). Beverage specialty stores were used significantly more often by women (28.7%) than by men (9.4%) (P<0.001). The primary factors influencing beverage selection were taste (75.1%), price (10.7%), calories (6.6%), and health effects (5.7%), without significant gender differences. The most common average monthly beverage expenditure was 20,000–40,000 South Korean won (KRW) (31.2%), followed by ≥40,000 KRW (23.2%) and 10,000–20,000 KRW (23.2%), without significant differences between men and women.
Among all participants, the most preferred beverage category was carbonated and sugar-sweetened drinks (3.8 points), whereas the least preferred beverage was energy drinks (2.7 points). When comparing preferences by gender, men showed a significantly higher preference for carbonated beverages (4.0 vs. 3.6, P<0.001) and energy drinks (3.1 vs. 2.3, P<0.001). In contrast, women showed a significantly higher preference for tea (3.4 vs. 3.2, P<0.05) (
Table 3).
The weekly frequency of beverage consumption in all participants was highest for coffee (2.8 times), followed by carbonated beverages (2.3 times), alcoholic beverages (1.6 times), and milk and liquid yogurt (1.6 times). In contrast, energy drinks were consumed least frequently (0.6 times). Regarding gender differences, significant differences were observed in consuming carbonated beverages (2.9 vs. 1.8, P<0.001), energy drinks (1.0 vs. 0.2, P<0.001), and alcoholic beverages (2.0 vs. 1.3, P=0.001), with higher consumption rates among men than women (
Table 4).
The total daily beverage intake was 433.9 g/day, accounting for 32.1% of total food intake (
Table 5). Carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages had the highest intake (144.9 g/day, 36.7% of total beverage intake), followed by caffeinated beverages (125.6 g, 31.0%), alcoholic beverages (124.3 g, 19.4%), and milk and liquid yogurt products (39.2 g, 12.4%). Compared with women, men had significantly higher total beverage intake (485.4 vs. 388.7, P<0.05), carbonated sugar-sweetened beverage intake (171.9 vs. 121.1, P<0.01), and alcoholic beverage intake (156.2 vs. 96.3, P<0.05).
Energy and nutrient intake from beverages are shown in
Table 6. The total energy intake was 1,790.2 kcal/day for all participants, with beverages accounting for 10.1% of total energy intake; alcoholic beverages contributed the highest proportion (4.5%). Carbohydrate intake was 219.5 g/day, with beverages contributing 9.3% of total intake; carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages accounted for the largest proportion (5.0%). Fat intake was 58.9 g/day, with beverages contributing 2.4% of total intake, mainly from milk and liquid yogurt products (1.8%). Protein intake was 64.6 g/day, with beverages contributing 3.1% of total intake, with milk and liquid yogurt products contributing the highest proportion (1.7%). Sugar intake was 46.9 g/day, with beverages contributing 35.5% of total intake, of which carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages contributed the highest proportion (19.7%). When comparing men and women, total energy, carbohydrate, fat, and protein intakes were significantly higher in men than in women. Energy intake from beverages (218.9 kcal vs. 170.5 kcal, P<0.05) and sugar intake (22.0 g vs. 17.1 g, P<0.05) were also significantly higher in men, whereas beverage-derived fat intake was significantly higher in women (1.6 g vs. 1.1 g, P<0.05).
DISCUSSION
College students entering early adulthood often exhibit high beverage consumption and experience various diet-related challenges. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate beverage-related dietary behaviors, beverage consumption patterns by type (carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages, caffeinated beverages, alcoholic beverages, and milk and liquid yogurt products), beverage-related nutrient intake, and gender differences among college students in Chungnam, South Korea.
In this study, 62.8% of participants did not check nutrition labels when purchasing beverages. The most common reason for not checking labels was the perception that it was unnecessary (51.3%), with no significant gender differences observed. Among participants who checked nutrition labels, calories were the most frequently considered component (54.4%). Similarly, Kim and Han [
3], who investigated beverage consumption patterns among college students, reported that more than half of the participants did not check nutrition labels, primarily because they perceived no need to do so, and that calories were the most frequently checked nutritional information among those who used nutrition labels. These findings reveal that nutrition education for college students should emphasize the importance of nutrition labeling and enhance practical skills related to using nutrition information when selecting beverages.
When beverage consumption patterns were compared by gender, male students showed greater preferences for carbonated beverages and energy drinks. Consequently, they exhibited significantly higher consumption frequency of these beverages, alcoholic beverages, and total beverage intake than female students. These gender differences in beverage consumption patterns may also reflect differences in lifestyle characteristics, as male students in this study reported higher frequencies of exercise and smoking than female students. Such lifestyle factors may influence beverage choices and nutrient intake and should be considered when interpreting gender differences in beverage consumption. The mean total beverage intake among participants was 433.9 g/day, which was somewhat lower than the combined intake of beverages (316.5 g), alcoholic beverages (109.7 g), and milk (92.6 g) reported among adults aged ≥19 years in the 2024 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey [
1]. Nevertheless, similar beverage consumption patterns were observed between this study and national survey data. In this study, beverage intake among college students was highest for carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages (144.9 g/day), followed by caffeinated beverages (125.6 g/day), alcoholic beverages (124.3g/day), and milk and liquid yogurt products (39.2 g/day). Similarly, Han [
2] used data from the 2019 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and reported that beverage consumption among adults aged 19 to 29 years was highest for carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages (390.9 g), followed by alcoholic beverages (176.9 g), caffeinated beverages (164.5 g), and milk and liquid yogurt products (58.2 g). Collectively, these findings reveal that carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages remain the predominant beverage types consumed among college students. In addition, the average intakes of milk and liquid yogurt, which contributed the largest proportions of protein and fat from beverages, were only 39.2 g/day, corresponding to approximately one-fifth of the recommended daily milk intake of 200 g according to the Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans [
23].
Compared with findings from Bae and Yeon [
24], based on data from the 2008 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverage intake in this study (144.9 g/day) was higher than that reported among elementary (72.1 g), middle (55.4 g), and high school students (105.3 g). Conversely, milk intake reported among elementary school students (147.8 g), middle school students (143.9 g), and high school students (120.2 g) was substantially higher than the intake of milk and liquid yogurt products in this study (39.2 g/day). College students represent a transitional population between adolescence, when school meals and nutrition education are commonly provided, and adulthood, when independent dietary behaviors become increasingly important. Compared with previous studies among children and adolescents, college students in this study had a relatively higher intake of carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages and a lower intake of milk products. Although direct comparisons should be interpreted cautiously due to differences in study populations and methodologies, these findings suggest that beverage consumption patterns may shift toward increased consumption of carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages and decreased consumption of milk products during the transition from adolescence to early adulthood. Given the importance of establishing healthy dietary behaviors during early adulthood, nutrition education promoting increased consumption of milk and liquid yogurt products while reducing excessive intake of carbonated and sugar-sweetened, alcoholic, and caffeinated beverages may be beneficial, particularly among male students.
The mean energy intake in this study was 1,942.0 kcal/day among men and 1,657.0 kcal/day among women. These findings were similar to those of Lee and Kwak [
25], who reported nutrient intake among college students in Daejeon and reported energy intakes of 1,942.0 kcal/day for men and 1,605.4 kcal/day for women, and were also generally consistent with a previous study [
26]. Protein intake was 71.5 g/day among men and 58.6 g/day among women, which was lower than that reported for adults aged 19 to 29 years in the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey [
27] but exceeded the recommended intake levels suggested by the Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans [
23]. Compared with the Korean recommendation for total sugar intake (<20% of total energy intake), the proportion of energy from sugar intake was within the recommended range for both men (9.7%) and women (11.3%).
Analysis of beverage contribution to energy and macronutrient intake showed that beverages contributed most substantially to sugar intake (35.5%), followed by energy (10.1%), carbohydrate (9.3%), protein (3.1%), and fat (2.4%). Carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages contributed the highest proportions of carbohydrate and sugar intake (5.0% and 19.7%, respectively), whereas alcoholic beverages contributed the largest proportion of energy intake (4.5%). Milk and liquid yogurt products contributed the highest proportions of fat and protein intake from beverages (1.8% and 1.7%, respectively). Notably, beverage-derived energy and sugar intakes were significantly higher among male than female students.
Carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages are energy-dense beverages that contain high amounts of sugar while providing relatively limited nutritional value and have been associated with poorer diet quality [
28]. Excessive intake of carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages may increase energy intake due to their high sugar content. It may potentially be associated with poorer dietary quality when consumed excessively. Therefore, appropriate nutrition education aimed at reducing excessive consumption of carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages among college students is necessary.
In this study, alcoholic beverages accounted for the largest share of beverage-derived energy intake. This finding is consistent with that of Park et al. [
29], who assessed dietary intake according to alcohol consumption status using data from the 2005 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Excessive alcohol consumption may increase energy intake through accompanying food consumption [
11], whereas chronic alcohol intake has been associated with reduced dietary intake and nutritional deficiencies [
17]. Therefore, educational efforts are needed to raise awareness of the nutritional consequences of excessive alcohol consumption among college students. In addition, prospective studies are needed further to investigate the relationship between alcohol consumption and nutrient intake.
Milk contains high-quality protein, calcium, and various vitamins and minerals, and the Korean Nutrition Society recommends consuming at least 200 mL/day [
23]. Bae and Yeon [
24] reported that dairy consumers among children and adolescents showed higher protein and micronutrient intake than nonconsumers. Although the intake of milk and liquid yogurt products was below the recommended level, these beverages contributed the highest proportions of protein and fat intake among all beverage categories. Kim and Kim [
30] reported that individuals with health- and safety-oriented dietary lifestyles had greater beverage-related knowledge and higher consumption of milk and dairy products. Therefore, milk and liquid yogurt products may serve as potential alternatives to frequently consumed beverages, such as carbonated and sugar-sweetened, or alcoholic beverages, among college students. However, additional research is needed to evaluate this possibility further. In this study, milk and liquid yogurt products were combined into a single beverage category due to their relatively low overall consumption. However, many commercially available liquid yogurt products contain added sugars, which may affect their nutritional quality. Therefore, future studies should distinguish between milk and liquid yogurt products to better assess their individual nutritional contributions and health implications.
This study has several limitations. First, because the participants were limited to college students residing in Chungnam, South Korea, the generalizability of findings to the broader population of Korean college students may be limited. Second, dietary intake was assessed using 3-day, 24-hour dietary recalls, including weekdays and weekends, to reflect usual dietary intake better. However, this method may not fully capture long-term dietary behaviors and beverage consumption patterns. Third, the cross-sectional design of this study limited the ability to establish causal relationships between beverage consumption patterns and nutrient intake. Another limitation is that anthropometric measures, such as body mass index and other obesity-related indicators, were not included, as this study primarily focused on beverage consumption patterns, beverage-related dietary behaviors, and beverage-derived nutrient intake. Future studies incorporating obesity-related indicators may provide further insights into the associations between beverage consumption patterns, nutrient intake, and obesity-related health outcomes, thereby enhancing the clinical significance of these findings.
Despite these limitations, this study has several strengths. It quantitatively assessed beverage consumption patterns, beverage-related dietary behaviors, and nutrient intake from beverages among male and female college students and identified gender differences in beverage consumption characteristics. These findings also provide foundational evidence for developing gender-specific nutrition education strategies and dietary interventions targeting beverage consumption among college students.
Conclusion
This study found that college students had high beverage consumption, with carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages accounting for the largest proportion of beverage intake and contributing substantially to total sugar intake. Significant gender differences were observed in beverage preferences, consumption patterns, and beverage-derived nutrient intake, with male students consuming more carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages, alcoholic beverages, and beverage-derived energy and sugars than female students. These findings highlight the need for nutrition education to promote healthier beverage choices among college students and support gender-specific beverage-related nutrition education and intervention.
NOTES
-
Author Contributions
Conceptualization: MKC. Formal analysis: SYK, MKC. Investigation: SYK. Methodology: SYK, MKC. Supervision: MKC. Writing - original draft: all authors. Writing - review & editing: MHK, MKC. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
-
Conflict of Interest
Mi-Kyeong Choi is an editorial board member of this journal, but was not involved in the peer reviewer selection, evaluation, or decision process of this article. No other potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.
-
Funding
None.
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Data availability
Data of this research is available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Table 1.General characteristics of the study participants
Table 1.
|
Characteristic |
Total (n=366) |
Men (n=171) |
Women (n=195) |
t/χ2 (P) |
|
Age (yr) |
21.68±7.61 |
21.56±2.67 |
21.80±10.14 |
−0.32 (0.752) |
|
Grade |
|
|
|
9.17 (0.057) |
|
1st |
123 (33.61) |
59 (34.50) |
64 (32.82) |
|
|
2nd |
62 (16.94) |
33 (19.30) |
29 (14.87) |
|
3rd |
64 (17.49) |
36 (21.05) |
28 (14.36) |
|
4th |
83 (22.68) |
33 (19.30) |
50 (25.64) |
|
Graduate school |
34 (9.29) |
10 (5.85) |
24 (12.31) |
|
Type of residence |
|
|
|
1.91 (0.385) |
|
Alone |
164 (44.81) |
82 (47.95) |
82 (42.05) |
|
|
With parents or spouse |
60 (16.39) |
29 (16.96) |
31 (15.90) |
|
With siblings or friends |
142 (38.80) |
60 (35.09) |
82 (42.05) |
|
Monthly allowance (KRW) |
|
|
|
3.86 (0.145) |
|
<300,000 |
142 (38.80) |
63 (36.84) |
79 (40.51) |
|
|
≥300,000 and <600,000 |
162 (44.26) |
72 (42.11) |
90 (46.15) |
|
≥600,000 |
62 (16.94) |
36 (21.05) |
26 (13.33) |
|
Exercise frequency |
|
|
|
71.93 (<0.001) |
|
Almost never |
147 (40.16) |
34 (19.88) |
113 (57.95) |
|
|
1–2 times a week |
129 (35.25) |
66 (38.60) |
63 (32.31) |
|
3–4 times a week |
53 (14.48) |
40 (23.39) |
13 (6.67) |
|
5–6 times a week |
20 (5.46) |
17 (9.94) |
3 (1.54) |
|
Every day |
17 (4.64) |
14 (8.19) |
3 (1.54) |
|
Smoking |
|
|
|
29.70 (<0.001) |
|
Yes |
82 (22.40) |
60 (35.09) |
22 (11.28) |
|
|
No |
284 (77.60) |
111 (64.91) |
173 (88.72) |
|
Daily cigarette consumption |
|
|
14.98 (<0.001) |
|
1–4 |
21 (25.61) |
9 (15.00) |
12 (54.55) |
|
|
5–9 |
23 (28.05) |
17 (28.33) |
6 (27.27) |
|
≥10 |
38 (46.34) |
34 (56.67) |
4 (18.18) |
Table 2.Beverage-purchasing behavior of university students by gender
Table 2.
|
Variable |
Total (n=366) |
Men (n=171) |
Women (n=195) |
χ2 (P) |
|
Use of nutrition label when purchasing beverages |
|
|
|
1.44 (0.230) |
|
Yes |
136 (37.16) |
58 (33.92) |
78 (40.00) |
|
|
No |
230 (62.84) |
113 (66.08) |
117 (60.00) |
|
Nutrition label component of interest among usersa)
|
|
|
|
11.21 (0.021)b)
|
|
Calorie |
74 (54.41) |
25 (43.10) |
49 (62.82) |
|
|
Carbohydrate |
2 (1.47) |
1 (1.72) |
1 (1.28) |
|
Sugars |
46 (33.82) |
21 (36.21) |
25 (32.05) |
|
Protein |
9 (6.62) |
7 (12.07) |
2 (2.56) |
|
Caffeine |
2 (1.47) |
1 (1.72) |
1 (1.28) |
|
Alcohol content for alcoholic beverages |
3 (2.21) |
3 (5.17) |
0 (0.00) |
|
Reason for not using nutrition labels among non-usersa)
|
|
|
|
3.60 (0.327)b)
|
|
No perceived need |
118 (51.30) |
60 (53.10) |
58 (49.57) |
|
|
Out of habit |
94 (40.87) |
41 (36.28) |
53 (45.30) |
|
Difficulty understanding |
8 (3.48) |
5 (4.42) |
3 (2.56) |
|
Small font size |
10 (4.35) |
7 (6.19) |
3 (2.56) |
|
Occasions for beverage consumption |
|
|
|
47.20 (<0.001) |
|
When thirsty |
119 (32.51) |
72 (42.11) |
47 (24.10) |
|
|
Snack time |
86 (23.50) |
19 (11.11) |
67 (34.36) |
|
During meals |
28 (7.65) |
11 (6.43) |
17 (8.72) |
|
After meals |
82 (22.40) |
36 (21.05) |
46 (23.59) |
|
After exercise |
14 (3.83) |
14 (8.19) |
0 (0.00) |
|
Often |
37 (10.11) |
19 (11.11) |
18 (9.23) |
|
Beverage purchase locationc)
|
|
|
|
|
|
Convenience store |
312 (85.25) |
152 (88.89) |
160 (82.05) |
3.22 (0.073) |
|
Supermarket |
99 (27.05) |
47 (27.49) |
52 (26.67) |
0.00 (0.960) |
|
Beverage store |
72 (19.67) |
16 (9.36) |
56 (28.72) |
20.70 (<0.001) |
|
Vending machine |
37 (10.11) |
14 (8.19) |
23 (11.79) |
1.31 (0.253) |
|
Online shopping malls |
8 (2.19) |
3 (1.75) |
5 (2.56) |
0.28 (0.728)b)
|
|
Key factors in beverage selection |
|
|
|
8.27 (0.142) |
|
Taste |
275 (75.14) |
126 (73.68) |
149 (76.41) |
|
|
Health effects |
21 (5.74) |
13 (7.60) |
8 (4.10) |
|
Price |
39 (10.66) |
18 (10.53) |
21 (10.77) |
|
Calorie |
24 (6.56) |
8 (4.68) |
16 (8.21) |
|
Satiety |
5 (1.37) |
4 (2.34) |
1 (0.51) |
|
Volume |
2 (0.55) |
2 (1.17) |
0 (0.00) |
|
Average monthly expenditure on beverage (KRW) |
|
|
|
3.96 (0.412) |
|
<5,000 |
23 (6.28) |
8 (4.68) |
15 (7.69) |
|
|
≥5,000 and <10,000 |
59 (16.12) |
26 (15.20) |
33 (16.92) |
|
≥10,000 and <20,000 |
85 (23.22) |
43 (25.15) |
42 (21.54) |
|
≥20,000 and <40,000 |
114 (31.15) |
49 (28.65) |
65 (33.33) |
|
≥40,000 |
85 (23.22) |
45 (26.32) |
40 (20.51) |
Table 3.Beverage type-specific preferences of university students by gender
Table 3.
|
Beverage category |
Total (n=366) |
Men (n=171) |
Women (n=195) |
t (P) |
|
Carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages |
|
Carbonated beverages |
3.82±1.08 |
4.03±0.92 |
3.63±1.17 |
3.65 (<0.001) |
|
Other beverages |
3.72±0.92 |
3.80±0.87 |
3.66±0.96 |
1.39 (0.166) |
|
Caffeinated beverages |
|
Coffee |
3.55±1.30 |
3.61±1.29 |
3.50±1.30 |
0.82 (0.414) |
|
Energy drinks |
2.67±1.18 |
3.13±1.24 |
2.28±0.97 |
7.24 (<0.001) |
|
Tea |
3.32±1.15 |
3.18±1.18 |
3.44±1.12 |
−2.21 (0.028) |
|
Alcoholic beverages |
3.25±1.22 |
3.27±1.28 |
3.23±1.17 |
0.38 (0.701) |
|
Milk and liquid yogurt |
3.75±1.00 |
3.74±0.99 |
3.76±1.02 |
−0.38 (0.704) |
Table 4.Weekly beverage consumption frequency of university students by gender
Table 4.
|
Beverage category |
Total (n=366) |
Men (n=171) |
Women (n=195) |
t (P) |
|
Carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages |
|
Carbonated beverages |
2.30±2.51 |
2.89±2.78 |
1.79±2.12 |
4.19 (<0.001) |
|
Other beverages |
1.17±1.87 |
1.27±2.08 |
1.09±1.67 |
0.89 (0.375) |
|
Caffeinated beverages |
|
Coffee |
2.83±3.34 |
3.07±3.59 |
2.62±3.10 |
1.28 (0.200) |
|
Energy drinks |
0.57±1.45 |
1.00±1.96 |
0.19±0.54 |
5.24 (<0.001) |
|
Tea |
0.92±1.74 |
0.74±1.33 |
1.08±2.03 |
−1.92 (0.056) |
|
Alcoholic beverages |
1.62±1.93 |
1.97±1.99 |
1.32±1.83 |
3.27 (0.001) |
|
Milk and liquid yogurt |
1.61±1.92 |
1.59±1.61 |
1.63±2.16 |
−0.21 (0.837) |
Table 5.Daily beverage intake of university students by gender
Table 5.
|
Beverage category |
Total (n=366) |
Men (n=171) |
Women (n=195) |
t (P) |
|
Total food intake (g/day) |
1,203.59±418.83 |
1,303.39±468.96 |
1,116.07±347.63 |
4.29 (<0.001) |
|
Total beverages |
|
|
|
|
|
Daily intake (g/day) |
433.86±360.82 |
485.41±408.30 |
388.65±307.36 |
2.53 (0.012) |
|
Proportion of total food intake (%)a)
|
32.09±18.48 |
32.78±19.46 |
31.48±17.60 |
0.67 (0.503) |
|
Carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages |
|
|
|
Daily intake (g/day) |
144.85±173.97 |
171.92±202.78 |
121.11±140.34 |
2.75 (0.006) |
|
Proportion of total beverage intake (%)b)
|
36.67±34.84 |
39.22±35.79 |
34.50±33.94 |
1.23 (0.219) |
|
Caffeinated beverages |
|
|
|
|
|
Daily intake (g/day) |
125.57±166.27 |
125.71±175.82 |
125.45±157.87 |
0.02 (0.988) |
|
Proportion of total beverage intake (%)b)
|
31.02±35.10 |
27.17±34.04 |
34.31±35.75 |
−1.85 (0.065) |
|
Alcoholic beverages |
|
|
|
|
|
Daily intake (g/day) |
124.25±233.41 |
156.16±261.30 |
96.27±202.46 |
2.43 (0.016) |
|
Proportion of total beverage intake (%)b)
|
19.40±28.61 |
23.39±31.21 |
15.99±25.78 |
2.33 (0.020) |
|
Milk and liquid yogurt |
|
|
|
|
Daily intake (g/day) |
39.19±73.31 |
31.62±65.71 |
45.82±78.96 |
−1.88 (0.061) |
|
Proportion of total beverage intake (%)b)
|
12.37±24.06 |
10.22±22.23 |
15.21±25.35 |
−1.89 (0.060) |
Table 6.Daily energy and nutrient intake from beverages of university students by gender
Table 6.
|
Nutrient and beverage category |
Total (n=366) |
Men (n=171) |
Women (n=195) |
t (P) |
|
Energy (kcal/day) |
1,790.16±493.46 |
1,942.02±546.50 |
1,656.99±397.88 |
5.64 (<0.001) |
|
Carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages |
49.42±64.41 (2.67) |
56.20±72.85 (2.79) |
43.48±55.49 (2.56) |
1.86 (0.064) |
|
Caffeinated beverages |
22.25±40.79 (1.27) |
25.00±45.52 (1.33) |
19.83±36.08 (1.22) |
1.19 (0.234) |
|
Alcoholic beverages |
92.85±176.16 (4.54) |
115.05±193.93 (5.09) |
73.37±156.89 (4.06) |
2.24 (0.026) |
|
Milk and liquid yogurt |
28.60±55.12 (1.59) |
22.62±46.31 (1.09) |
33.84±61.47 (2.02) |
−1.99 (0.048) |
|
Total beverages |
193.11±207.45 (10.06) |
218.87±230.58 (10.30) |
170.52±182.44 (9.86) |
2.20 (0.028) |
|
Carbohydrate (g/day) |
219.45±60.59 |
234.08±64.03 |
206.62±54.41 |
4.51 (<0.001) |
|
Carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages |
11.26±14.99 (4.97) |
13.30±17.20 (5.58) |
9.47±12.52 (4.43) |
2.41 (0.017) |
|
Caffeinated beverages |
4.30±9.28 (1.90) |
5.04±10.07 (2.13) |
3.65±8.50 (1.70) |
1.41 (0.160) |
|
Alcoholic beverages |
1.66±4.35 (0.79) |
2.19±4.99 (0.95) |
1.20±3.65 (0.65) |
2.15 (0.033) |
|
Milk and liquid yogurt |
3.94±9.81 (1.67) |
2.66±5.75 (1.00) |
5.07±12.23 (2.25) |
−2.46 (0.015) |
|
Total beverages |
21.17±20.60 (9.33) |
23.19±21.74 (9.66) |
19.40±19.42 (9.04) |
1.76 (0.079) |
|
Fat (g/day) |
58.86±21.13 |
62.64±23.37 |
55.54±18.37 |
3.20 (0.002) |
|
Carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages |
0.25±0.89 (0.41) |
0.12±0.52 (0.19) |
0.36±1.11 (0.60) |
−2.76 (0.006) |
|
Caffeinated beverages |
0.10±0.38 (0.19) |
0.11±0.42 (0.20) |
0.09±0.35 (0.18) |
0.54 (0.590) |
|
Alcoholic beverages |
0.00±0.03 (0.00) |
0.00±0.04 (0.00) |
0.00±0.00 (0.00) |
1.00 (0.319) |
|
Milk and liquid yogurt |
1.03±2.42 (1.76) |
0.87±2.13 (1.37) |
1.17±2.64 (2.11) |
−1.23 (0.221) |
|
Total beverages |
1.38±2.59 (2.36) |
1.09±2.22 (1.76) |
1.62±2.86 (2.89) |
−1.98 (0.049) |
|
Protein (g/day) |
64.61±21.84 |
71.52±23.55 |
58.55±18.23 |
5.83 (<0.001) |
|
Carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages |
0.27±1.03 (0.43) |
0.15±0.63 (0.20) |
0.38±1.28 (0.63) |
−2.25 (0.025) |
|
Caffeinated beverages |
0.38±0.88 (0.66) |
0.34±0.77 (0.53) |
0.42±0.96 (0.77) |
−0.91 (0.365) |
|
Alcoholic beverages |
0.25±1.01 (0.35) |
0.36±1.36 (0.44) |
0.15±0.52 (0.27) |
1.92 (0.056) |
|
Milk and liquid yogurt |
1.07±2.86 (1.66) |
0.80±1.79 (1.10) |
1.31±3.53 (2.16) |
−1.77 (0.077) |
|
Total beverages |
1.98±3.30 (3.09) |
1.65±2.34 (2.26) |
2.26±3.94 (3.82) |
−1.83 (0.068) |
|
Sugars (g/day) |
46.93±26.02 |
47.15±27.33 |
46.71±24.89 |
0.15 (0.877) |
|
Carbonated and sugar-sweetened beverages |
10.83±14.50 (19.68) |
13.06±16.85 (22.40) |
8.87±11.78 (17.30) |
2.72 (0.007) |
|
Caffeinated beverages |
4.10±8.65 (7.53) |
4.89±9.72 (8.62) |
3.41±7.54 (6.59) |
1.61 (0.108) |
|
Alcoholic beverages |
1.13±5.00 (2.03) |
1.67±6.71 (2.46) |
0.66±2.67 (1.65) |
1.85 (0.066) |
|
Milk and liquid yogurt |
3.33±6.56 (6.26) |
2.40±5.26 (4.46) |
4.15±7.43 (7.83) |
−2.62 (0.009) |
|
Total beverages |
19.39±19.07 (35.50) |
22.02±22.11 (37.94) |
17.09±15.63 (33.36) |
2.43 (0.016) |
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